Walter Benjamin “Theses on Philosophy of History"

“Historicism gives the ‘eternal’ image of the past; historical materialism supplies a unique experience with the past. The historical materialist leaves it to others to be drained by the whore called ‘Once upon a time’ in historicism’s bordello. He remains in control of his powers, man enough to blast open the continuum of history” (Benjamin, 262).

In Walter Benjamin “Theses on Philosophy of History,” he focuses on the historicism and historical materialism with regards to past and present. It conveys the experience of time in metaphysical way. His main concern is progress. The idea that thing were getting better. But many problems still exist that humanity is still making progress to solve the problems of human lives.

 In the sixteenth thesis Benjamin argues that the past in not really past because time never changes. Historicism, he is referring to continuing or forever. Research show that historicism is a mode of thinking that assign a central and basic significance to a specific context, such as historical period geographical place and local culture.  Historical materialism is a methodological approach to the study of society, economic and history. It is interesting, because Benjamin is right about historicism an eternal now.  The past never change.  He is concerned with time and how it is perceived; according to the passage time is “after all a construct that have been invented to help make sense of reality.” He speaks of the eternal now, here he is talking about a time that does not end; that is forever. He means that past event gives impression although remote and detach from our present life does have impact on us. he studies history, he combines historical materialism.  This name Karl Marx uses when he interpret an unceasing struggle between economic classes that go through various stages of productions.  The materialism suggests that historical analysis should be directed toward the material aspect of economic society.

Walter Benjamin: “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction."

                “These technical developments in the reproduction of art lead to a “quantitative shift between its two poles” and cause a “qualitative transformation of its nature." What he means by that is that artistic production could be analyzed as having a "cult value" and "exhibition value"–the two poles. The cult value refers to its status in magic and rituals; exhibition value refers to the content or the "information" contained within the piece, literally by showing or exhibiting it. Although both values are always present one is always stronger than the other and until modern times, the cult value of art (which supports social order by making it seem mystical) tended to dominate, but reproduction of art in ever greater numbers has caused this to shit so much, that the defining quality of art now tends to emphasize exhibition value over cult value. This is the framework by which Benjamin analyzes art, and he is suspicious of any attempt to recreate "cult value" under the modern conditions of production. One form in which this takes is fascism; the other is the American entertainment system–Hollywood by this time had already been established.  Emil Jannings, I already mentioned, star of The Blue Angel and later celebrity of the Nazi regime won the first Academy Award for Best Actor in 1928.”

                In “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (1934) Walter Benjamin noted how new technologies of cultural production such as photograph, film and radio have change the view on art and media of older culture. He shows that technological reproduction has a standard that transmits work of art to change the impact on the public. He discusses how the reproduction of art and film affect traditional forms.

                One can see the points he brought up during his discussion about stage and screen. H discusses the idea that work of art can be view on two different levels. This he calls cult value and exhibition value. He analyze that a reproduction of art has change the quantity and quality between both cult value and exhibition value. According to the passage, Benjamin shows that it is meaningless to ask for an original photo because reproduction makes it difficult to use these images, he points out that exhibition value communicate a lot of strong information. He shows that mass media gives a more realistic view of the world; people will be better able to communicate with other. He is also concern with the loss of tradition in life.

                Benjamin article is interesting; he uses the development of the work of art to explain his thought about humanity, social, economical and traditional changes. For Benjamin, the creation of mass art, especially in film help expose political issues, commercial capitalist and relate to social order. Through film people of different society can visualize a relationship.

               

 Questions

(1)    The difference between cult value and exhibition value is that one dominates the other. Benjamin reveals that mechanical reproduction has change the dominance of cult value. The exhibition value is dominating cult value in quality. Cult value is the value of an artistic production within the service of cult. People creates ceremonial object for cult and ritual purposes. It deals with magical and ritual status. While exhibition value is the value of an object exhibited or presented publicly. It refers to the contents of information contained within the piece, literally by showing it. Benjamin relates this value to politic in that political forces use art to express and stress their ideas more naturally and realistically. Just as technology reproduction change the domain of cult value, it is able to change political views in regard to despotism. It acts as a tool of social and political consciousness. The creation of mass art mainly through film would bring images of the current world to the masses and would help raise political awareness and scrutinize the world. It helps to destroy the historic dominant of class in society and allow people to see the universal equality.

(2)    The difference between Erfahrung (integrated experience) and Erlebnisse (isolated experience) is the opposite each other. The shows that integrated experience was a fuller and more develop “mode” than isolated experience. Integration occurs by understanding the historical origins of object of contact.  It establishes continuity or connation between experiences. While isolated experience suggest that objects are encountered in isolation and usually hostile. It sees no connection between one experiences or another. This relates to art in that the experience of art changes when it is reproduced. The historical context is loss.

(3)    Some positive effects of the destruction of the “aura” in art are that the standard art, photograph and film improved allowing for motion and sound creating new experience; this Benjamin shows that to destroy the mystical art is positive development because it allows one to approach art in a more realistic way. It brings change and exposes hidden details of familiar object.  It also allows people to see “the universal equality of things; negative effects of the destruction of the aura in art includes loss of uniqueness and quality. It diminishes the integrated experience.

(4)    To evaluate the impact of the forms of mass culture like film in contemporary life, one can see the effect it has brought changes. It encourage individuals to adjusts and change to new conditions of mass society. Film have change human perception. It is an important part of creating political consciousness public. It expresses social and political ideas. It gives expressions economic and social depiction of human suffering to groups and individuals who would not be able to express themselves.  

On Pain

On Pain

                 Ernest Junger a German writer in his essay “On Pain” which was written in 1934 after Hitler take power in 1993 shows that pain is the main experience in human life and behavior. Individual as society all deal with pain. He points that being submissive to totalitarian tends to be the best way to avoid pain. His essay analyzes “worker type” and specialized liberal education system. He as discuss the impact of technology in human life as he relate to the aspect of the Nazi regime. He uses metaphor to describe the negative perception of situation in Hitler Germany.

“The profussion of violent imagery, and the fast pace and constant danger of modern life forces people to become more tolerant of pain and death: The human will disciplines and outfits this flesh with such painstaking care that it now seems more indifferent to injury. Today, we again are able to bear the sight of death with greater indifference, since we no longer feel at home in our body as we did before. It no longer accords with our style to stop a flying show or a car race simply because of a deadly accident. Such accidents lie not outside but inside the zone of a new kind of security”(p. 43).  

In this passage he is referring to advancing technology and how people are reacting. He discusses that through photography one could see the violent imagery and how regular hazard force people become accustom to pain.  This is interesting because people who suffer constant pain after a while the body get use to the pain and it become as if a normal part of life. Junger argues that to overcome pain is through detachment. Most of us do not seek suffering, but it comes to us as inevitable out of the way in which we find happiness. The kind of detachment that brings freedom all desire and attachment is to be desire less. It is securely base on the knowledge that all thing of the world are momentary  and passing and that clinging to them will eventual be a source of pain.

                                             

Questions

(1)          Ernest Junger’s thesis that pain is the central experience of life can be judge as the truth. Nothing in this life time is achieved without pain. Pain helps to realizes that there is a problem. Mixed emotions and behavior are often counterproductive of with coping with problems.

(2)          Post-liberal refers to the nihilistic view of Nietzsche,that there is no freedom; it relates to ti the idea of progress in terms of material well-being  an the reduce that to a series of empirical indices, such as income level, education life and life expectancy.

(3)          Photography refers to as “Evil Eye” because photographs reflect the truth an expose the harm just as it has occurs. It is a weapon that can expose precise and objective depictions. For Junger seeing is an act of assault. Photo graph is an expression of peculiarly way of seeing; it demonstrates qualities, impressive displays that attract attentions. Politicians today use television to reveal their purpose or to point out their opponent.

(4)          The relationship between specialized education and the “worker type” is that the both require training, obedience and discipline.  There is also limitation to both areas of human life. Like “worker type”, specialized education experienced assault on liberal education; in which people liberty was in question. As they have been denied the right of free inquiry

(5)          Submission to totalitarian authorities protects individuals from pain; a totalitarian is a system maintain by threat and force; instruction and rule are given to mold in to the shape desired by the authority.  Submission to impose duty may spare one from aggressive action of save life.     Self preservation by adapt and be

Nazism

NIHILISM IN GERMANY

Nazism

“Triumph of the Will” is a German film made by Leni Riefenstahl in 1934. It is a propaganda film that portrays the way Adolf Hitler presents himself to the outside world. It shows how the Nazi party was attended by Nazi to support their politics. This film was commission by Hitler, he use the mass media in a way to influence people...  Like many politicians today, the Nazis want the public to have a good impression of them. They made promises to the people to bring them freedom and better livelihood. Made As a result, many German decides corporate and represent the Nazi leader.  The film depicts their devotion, faithfulness and loyalty to their leader.

On arriving to Germany, the people seem to love Hitler; they all heil Hitler, they welcome him on the street, from their homes.  People seem to be organized, always in order in which people are devotes and Hitler appears to be for the people. Stern depiction of neatly lined up party members and German soldiers are in union. Scenes inter cut with political speeches by political members and Hitler. The film is boring and seems unrealistic with the repeated marching of solders and speeches. The majority of the speeches are about enemy, threats, and how the people need to bond together and eliminate threats. One main point of Nazi doctrine is to recreate the former German prestige of the German people. Another point is the doctrine of anti-Semitism which the Nazi avoid to mention in their film. This indicates that the Nazis are covering or hiding their true self.

The documentary film entitled “Night and Fog” written by Jean Cayrol is a three part film that shows some very disturbing scene. The action of the Nazis is crime against humanity. This documentary reflects the horror of how the people were treated in camps. They were packed in trains locked from the outside and shipped off to concentration camps. It is disturbing to see those naked human beings standing as a skeleton and other scenes with dead bodies all packed on each other.

This is interesting, the strategy that Hitler uses to get in office many politicians have and are using that strategy today. There are several examples in which politicians’ promises to deliver solution to certain conditions in society. Some approach politics with false pretence or intent. Although the Nazi regime was seems stern and severe, some of its counter parts reflect or relates to today’s society As stated in the passage, we have people who manipulate through the mass media the way  the Nazi did. Nations are constantly at war; our government does keep the population under surveillance and detain individuals without trial. Just as the German use the Jews as scapegoat as a way to direct attention from other problems, there are people that does the same.

(1)  Some major reasons that led to the rise of the Nazi German involve political, economical and cultural factors. The Weimar Republic political system makes it easier for the Nazi to gain power. German had a voting system in which seats are allocated in parliament according to the percentage of vote capture and multiple political parties compete against each other. In addition the Great Depression contributes to the rise of the Nazi, it creates economic crisis such as inflation and unemployment that the Nazi capitalized on.

(2)  Nazi resolve conflicts between workers and owners by portraying themselves as a non-communist alternative for the working classes; they promise to resolve the struggles between business and labor. This was an attractive model for business because it gives a charismatic authority to support their interest.

(3)  The significance of the phrase “Arbeit Macht Frei” (work makes one free) is to influence the workers as they were in concentration camps to work endlessly with the intent to be free. It seems like a false promise that those workers, who worked tiresomely, would be released; they worked self-sacrificing.

(4)  State capitalism is when large industrial monopolies maintain control over production through the power of the state. This is where the power motive takes priority over the profit motive. The state exercise control by it ability to control financing, price of raw materials, the wage paid to workers and setting production goals. It relates to Nazi German in that the Nazi disregard ethical principles and purses their aim. German uses every resource to take over all factories and industrial component. They use slave labor to construct road and factories.

 A psychological cause of anti-Semitism in German society was the unconscious projection of human needs for boundaries, identity, leader and self. The German was threatened by the Jews, therefore this lead to murderous group violence and even genocide.

Politic as a Vaction

Max Webber “Politics as a Vation”

 “'Every state is founded on force,' said Trotsky at Brest-Litovsk. That is indeed right. If no social institutions existed which knew the use of violence, then the concept of 'state' would be eliminated, and a condition would emerge that could be designated as 'anarchy,' in the specific sense of this word. Of course, force is certainly not the normal or the only means of the state--nobody says that--but force is a means specific to the state. Today the relation between the state and violence is an especially intimate one. In the past, the most varied institutions--beginning with the sib--have known the use of physical force as quite normal. Today, however, we have to say that a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory. Note that 'territory' is one of the characteristics of the state. Specifically, at the present time, the right to use physical force is ascribed to other institutions or to individuals only to the extent to which the state permits it. The state is considered the sole source of the 'right' to use violence. Hence, 'politics' for us means striving to share power or striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state.”

http://www.ne.jp/asahi/moriyuki/abukuma/weber/lecture/politics_vocation.html

Max Weber a German sociologist provides the speech “Politics as a Vacation” to students at the University of Munich in 1918. In his speech he raises questions that concerns importance of political action in the way of life. This speech relate to nihilism in regard to concept of the will to power. German uses power as a role to accomplish their self-interest, political, socially and economically.

The passage that is appealing is where he quotes “Every state is founded on force”. Here he describes a state as an authority having control to the legal means of organized violence with in a define territory. He indicates that the use of physical force is designating an important attribute of the state’s sovereignty. This means that the police and the military are the main mechanisms that support a claim on “monopoly of legitimate physical force in enforcement of its order.”  It shows that the state is important notion in politics; it demonstrates the link between the state and authority.  

This statement seems to be true in past and present society. Many nations have been taken by physical force.  Nation has use force as a means to an end; in which the state uses violence as legitimate to achieve its end. Violence, such as war and crime is used to accomplish their goal.

It is interesting, this subject relate to today’s situations in many countries, especially in country like Iraq. Where nation are dominated and government expresses desire to reign with military group. This can be seen in the case of the “Anbar Awakening” found in the New York  Times under the heading “In a Force for Iraqi Calm, Seeds of Conflict” written by Alissa J. Rubin and Damien Cave  December 23,2007. It states that “In Ramadi, Iraq, improved security provided by local tribes has allowed greater movement, but questions remain about their loyalty and sustainability.”

http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/world/middleeast/23awakening.html?ei=5090&en=93b15c431c7f9bbe&ex=1356066000&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all

In Addition, private individuals and organization have use force to protect themselves and their property.  Organizations continue to use power with an administrative staff to carry out the needs and demands of the organization in order to maintain its objectives.

The Weimar Republic

The Weimar Republic:

The passage shows that Weimer Republic was a modern democratic form of government in Germany during 1933-1930. The word republic refers to things that matter to the people. Under Weimar Republic, Germany has advance from the totalitarian dictatorship and military past; German share a more humane aspect of their culture. In Weimar constitution, the structure of government is combined of nation and responsibilities. The constitution sets rules and responsibilities that govern the Legislative, the Executive and the Judicial branch of government; the relationship state and federal government.

First Chapter: the Reich and the States

Article 1The German Reich is a republic.
State authority derives from the people.

This means that the German territory is a nation in which the state authority comes from the people. This means that political authority must be exercise in accordance with the constitution solely to serve and protect the people’s interest. This statement relate to human rights and dignity. Human dignity should not be violated. It is the state duty to respect and protect. German citizen acknowledge firm an absolute human rights as a basis of every community of peace and justice in the world. Everyone who exercises state power on the trust for the people of Germany must exercise that power within the bounds of lawful authority and in accordance with his or her responsibilities to the people. Similarly, the United States government derives from the people. In democracy the idea that people are the ultimate source of political authority and agent of political power is essential. Germany and USA share similar federal republic; in which authority of central government is limited by the constitution and the power is shared with the nation, province or colonies. The source of power is the people who elect the representative government. This federal constitution protects the people from oppression by preventing any division from unnecessary influence on policy.

Second Chapter: The Reichstag
Article 32To establish a decision in Reichstag, a simple majority of votes suffices, unless the constitution prescribes a different relation of votes. During Reichstag. The rules of procedure establish quorum.

To select and appoint member, government make decision base on the majority of the vote. This rule of simple majority is enough is use to regulate and guide the range of operation in the government. This will avoid prejudice and bias in constitution. When making decisions, for instant to select a president there is a vote in which the mass of the vote makes the decision. The candidate with most of the votes will be the president. The populist urged for the direct election by the people. In cases where there is no majority, the constitution suggests a different kind of vote. During German legislative period, a quorum is used; a small percentage of the members are permitted to assembly to act for the organization (as a majority). Government under the Reichstag is accountable to the voter through an election process whether it is through majority of Quorum. This is comparable to the Bill of Rights Amendment # 12. Presidential elections voted by ballot the person having the greatest number of vote will be the President. If there is no mass, three people with the highest number will be on a list for those voted for President and the house of Representative will choose by vote. This quorum with members of two third of the state and the majority of all states is necessary to a choice.

These two sections relates to each other. They both communicate a message with human right and dignity; which is relevant to our society. The German experience to democracy in which they gain opportunity to elect their government instead of the past military and despotism. It was humane Germany to allow its citizen the opportunity to select government. Citizen makes political decision in which the citizen elects representative to make political decisions as part of a legislative body. They were able to vote and their right was protected by the second section of the constitution which oversees the day to day operation of government.

Questions:

(1)       Some advantages of proportional representation are that it reduces wasted vote and it increases the tendency of minority group to have a voice in politics. To reduce wasted vote, seats are given in legislature base on the total percentage of vote won by the party. It is also fair; many opinions could be heard as each political party won a seat.

On the contrary, some disadvantages of proportional representation show representatives less responsive and less dependent on local voters; it allow Nazis to come in power despite they never gain more than 30% of the vote.

(2)       Some leading causes of the decline of the Weimar Republic result from the aftermath of world war. These include economic problems, cultural, political and institutional problems. One main cause of the collapse of the Weimar Republic is economic problems which result in inflation. The period of the Great Depression cause a hyperinflation. There was massive unemployment, a large decline in standard of living and the value of paper money in 1923 worth roughly 1 trillion for every gold mark.

(3)       Hyperinflation is when there is an extreme price increase because of the value of money decline as oppose to a foreign currency. During 1922-192, Germany experience hyperinflation as a result of economic instability; they experience rapid price increase, food shortage and huge unemployment. Inflation was very high or out of control. Depreciation of the marks in terms of foreign or gold value was uncontrollable. The exchange rate of the dollar and the German Marks was trillion to one dollar. The more price increase they increase in money supply.

(4)       The Weimar Constitution as compared to the American Constitution can be judge as similar, controversial, and distinctive in some areas. The passage shows that both are similar in basic structure in different order they outline the power and responsibilities of legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. The second section is similar to the bill of rights On the contrary, with regard to education Weimar constitution provides a right to education with specific detail what this right entails. While the U.S. constitution does not provide for a right to education. In addition, Weimar constitution is distinctive in that it creates economic right for the citizens. Finally, one controversial issue is Article 48 which gives the president the control to postpone civil freedom in times of crisis.

German revolution of 1918-1919

“Violated, dishonored, wading in blood, dripping filth – there stands bourgeois society. This is it [in reality]. Not all spic and span and moral, with pretense to culture, philosophy, ethics, order, peace, and the rule of law – but the ravening beast, the witches’ sabbath of anarchy, a plague to culture and humanity. Thus it reveals itself in its true, its naked form.”   http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1915/junius/ch01.htm

This passage is interesting as it describes the crisis during 1918 – 1919. It describes how the German were violated, dishonored, exploited by bourgeois and struggle against militarism and war. This passage address German moral, culture, philosophy, ethics, order peace and the rule of law. The dictatorship of the land has been an outbreak to their society and humanity.

Rosa Luxemburg essay highlights several aspects that reflect on humanity. She was part of a working class council, known as the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This group was guided by Marxism and lead by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. The things Luxemburg wrote are of value. They represent political break, she had a fundamental view on the role of intellectuals in the struggle for socialism.  The passage shows that Germany was a leading industrial power in Europe and its working class was very structured were very fixed political alertness. German action removes the fear that counties would be condemn to isolation and expects defeat. They were surrounded by hostile imperialist powers and subject to embrace economic dictates of the world division of labor.

           The war has cause trauma in several human lives. It has also brought people together. During the time of war society was in constant class struggle, they were in conflict over land, people wants civil freedom’ no control over land and themselves. They want to determine their own destiny. At war time, German troops forced men, women, and children out of their home and many perished; there have been exploitation of laborers. As a result, people rebels against German control of their homeland.

German society uses politics to persuade the working class councils to join in the war. SPD is lead to believe that they will be fighting for the good of the land, for civilization, peace and equality. That the leaders promised, as a result, the SPD decides to corporate for the good of the fatherland with whatever stat form is created the National Assembles and seek to influence their political views in it. SPD formed alliance with their enemies, the officials of the imperial army and the leaders of the capitalist industry in effort to defend the fatherland. The intention for the sake of democracy that protects private property, guaranteed the tenure rights of imperial civil servants and equal rights.

Humanity is never changing’ happening of the war is still present in our society today. People are exploiting each other to achieve power and wealth. Capitalism alienates and exploits proletariat, politician deceives nation with promises, and these are all seen in pass war and is now a reflection of today’s society.

Questions

(1)          Luxemburg believes the war of 1871 affects the war in 1914 because the German power was in the hand of the Kaiser. Their government was bound by the constitution enacted in 1871. Prussian state is a military despotism that dominates the German officers with their bureaucracy of Germany Kaiser control.

(2)          Luxemburg judges the claims made about Russian despotism supported by the Social Democratic Party (SPD) as a betrayal of the main principle; when the working class was invited to defend the frontier against the military. Class or nation was the issue of the war. They believe that they were fighting a defensive war that would bring civilization, peace and equality. The German socialist supported Germany in the war. Doing so, they betray the spirit of their international working class solidarity.

(3)          The relationship between nationalism and capitalism has to do with control in environment. Nationalism relates to extreme belief in ones country and strong central government and power. It also discourses on cultural, political and social differences. Capitalism focuses on economic with the view on profit; it individuals’ intention is to accumulate wealth. Nationalism is seen when patriotic sign allows union leaders to promise class peace to the working class councils; this was replaced by capitalism.  The capitalist exercise control in the workplace, community and media. Capitalist allows self-interest and the urges to maximize profit intrude on the wellbeing of the working class, thus result in alienation and exploitation.          

(4)          Luxemburg believes that the war supports the business interest of steel and the bank because German system was a federalism of small monarchs.  They were in the upper class of imperialism that  was concerned in business interests and  allied with the new industrials of irons and steel production.